Although a population's habitat influences physiological performance, little work has explicitly examined the multi-stressor responses of species from habitats differing in natural variability. Understanding how rising temperatures, ocean acidification, and hypoxia affect the performance of coastal fishes is essential to predicting species-specific responses to climate change. Studies of fish behavioral defenses under ocean acidification can help streamline hypotheses and experimental approaches, particularly given the similar effects of elevated pCO2 on GABAA function. Increased research efforts on the effects of multiple stressors, acclimation and adaptation, environmental variability, and complex situational and ecological contexts are needed. Despite the importance of shellfish behavioral defenses in the ecology and evolution of marine biological communities, however, research to date has only scraped the surface in understanding ocean acidification effects. Ultimately, the results of this study suggest that behavioral prey defenses in some shellfish taxa may be vulnerable to ocean acidification, that the effects of ocean acidification are often different under warming scenarios than under present-day temperature scenarios, and that GABAA interference may be an important mechanism underpinning behavioral responses of shellfish prey under ocean acidification. Based on a qualitative assessment of three studies to date, neurological interference of GABAA receptors under elevated pCO2 may play a major role in ocean acidification effects on prey defense behaviors however, more research is needed, and other mechanistic underpinnings are also important to consider. A qualitative assessment of studies on combined effects of ocean acidification and warming revealed that combined effects typically differ from ocean acidification–only effects. By contrast, defenses of cephalopod molluscs seem to be positively impacted by elevated pCO2, whereas gastropods and echinoids appear unaffected. A meta-analysis suggested that exposure to elevated seawater pCO2 can negatively affect behavioral defenses in bivalve molluscs and malacostracan crustaceans. A systematic literature search identified 34 studies that experimentally assessed behavioral defenses under elevated pCO2 spanning three phyla: crustaceans, echinoderms, and molluscs. This study combines both quantitative (meta-analysis) and qualitative approaches to review the effects of ocean acidification on behavioral prey defenses in marine invertebrates. It has been recently demonstrated that CO2-induced ocean acidification can alter the behavior of marine organisms and potentially alter predator–prey dynamics. This knowledge could explain observed species-specificity in behavioural responses to OA and lend to a unifying theory of OA effects on marine animal behaviour.īiological interactions between predators and prey constitute a key component of the ecology and evolution of marine systems, and animal behavior can affect the outcome of predator–prey interactions. We recommend a new focus on determining the behavioural effects of elevated CO2 in the context of multiple environmental drivers and future carbonate system variability, and gaining a better mechanistic understanding of the association between acid-base regulation and GABA-A receptor functioning. Altered GABA-A receptor functioning under elevated CO2 appears responsible for many behavioural responses however, this mechanism is unlikely to be universal. The interactive effects of co-occurring environmental parameters with CO2 elicit different effects than those observed under elevated CO2 alone, though only 12% of studies have incorporated multiple factors only one study has examined the effects of carbonate system variability on the behaviour of a marine animal. A meta-analysis of the direction and magnitude of change in behaviours from current conditions under OA scenarios suggests primarily negative impacts that vary depending on species, ecosystem, and behaviour. Although studies have focused equally on vertebrates and invertebrates, vertebrate studies have primarily focused on coral reef fishes, in contrast to the broader diversity of invertebrate taxa studied. We synthesize current understanding of how a high CO2 ocean may impact animal behaviour, elucidate critical unknowns, and provide suggestions for future research by reviewing current published literature surrounding OA and marine behaviour. Recently, the impacts of ocean acidification (OA) on marine animal behaviour have garnered considerable attention, as they can impact biological interactions and, in turn, ecosystem structure and functioning.
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